<div style="float:right; border:1px;"><toc></div> ~~~Imported from [Wikipedia:Glossary%20of%20philosophical%20isms Wikipedia] on 2006-12-27~~~ This is a list of topics relating to [Deoxy:philo.htm philosophy] that end in ''[Local:Ism -ism]'' == * A == * '''absolutism''' – the position that in a particular domain of thought, all statements in that domain are either absolutely true or absolutely false: none is true for some cultures or eras while false for other cultures or eras. These statements are called absolute truths. A common reaction by those who newly criticize absolutism is the absolute truth statement: Absolute truths do not exist. ** '''enlightened absolutism''' – a term used to describe the actions of absolute rulers who were influenced by the Enlightenment (eighteenth and early nineteenth century Europe). ** '''moral absolutism''' – the position that there are absolute standards against which moral questions can be judged, and that certain actions are right or wrong, regardless of the context of the act. ** '''political absolutism''' – a political theory which argues that one person should hold all power. * '''abstractionism''' – * '''absurdism''' – philosophy stating that the efforts of man to find meaning in the universe will ultimately fail because no such meaning exists (at least in relation to man). Absurdism is related to Existentialism, though should not be confused with it, and is in part a hyponym of nihilism. * '''accidentalism''' – any system of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that events succeed one another haphazardly or by chance (not in the mathematical but in the popular sense). In metaphysics, accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs or results from a definite cause. In this connection it is synonymous with Tychism (ruxi, chance), a term used by Charles Sanders Peirce for the theories which make chance an objective factor in the process of the Universe. * '''acosmism''' – in contrast to pantheism, denies the reality of the universe, seeing it as ultimately illusory, (the preffix "a-" in Greek meaning negation; like "un-" in English), and only the infinite Unmanifest Absolute as real. This philosophy begins with the recognition that there is only one Reality, which is infinite, non-dual, blissful, etc. Yet the phenomenal reality of which we are normally aware is none of these things; it is in fact just the opposite: i.e. dualistic, finite, full of suffering and pain, and so on. And since the Absolute is the only reality, that means that everything that is not-Absolute cannot be real. Thus, according to this viewpoint, the phenomenal dualistic world is ultimately an illusion ("Maya" to use the technical Indian term), irrespective of the apparent reality it possesses at the mundane or empirical level. * '''aestheticism''' – another name for the ''Aesthetic movement'', a loosely defined movement in art and literature in later nineteenth century Britain. Proponents of the movement held that art does not have any didactic purpose, it need only be beautiful. Life should copy Art. The main characteristics of the movement were: suggestion rather than statement, sensuality, massive use of symbols, and synaesthetic effects - that is, correspondence between words, colors and music. * '''agnosticism''' – the philosophical view that the truth values of certain claims — particularly theological claims regarding the existence of God, gods, or deities — are unknown, inherently unknowable, or incoherent, and therefore, (some agnostics may go as far to say) irrelevant to life. Agnosticism, in both its strong (explicit) and weak (implicit) forms, is necessarily a non-atheist and non-theist position, though an agnostic person may also be either an atheist, a theist, or one who endorses neither position. **'''agnostic atheism''' – the philosophical view that encompasses both atheism and agnosticism. Due to definitional variance, an ''agnostic atheist'' does not believe in God or gods and by extension holds true: 'the existence and nonexistence of deities is currently unknown and may be absolutely unknowable', or 'knowledge of the existence and nonexistence of deities is irrelevant or unimportant', or 'abstention from claims of knowledge of the existence and nonexistence of deities is optimal'. **'''agnostic theism''' – the philosophical view that encompasses both theism and agnosticism. An agnostic theist is one who views that the truth value of claims regarding the existence of god(s) is unknown or inherently unknowable but chooses to believe in god(s) in spite of this. ** '''strong agnosticism''' – also referred to as ''explicit agnosticism'' and ''positive agnosticism'', it is the view that the evidence in the universe is such that it is impossible for humans to know whether or not any deities exist. ** '''weak agnosticism''' – the position that the evidence is such that the existence or nonexistence of deities is currently unknown, but is not necessarily unknowable. Also called ''implicit agnosticism'', ''empirical agnosticism'', and ''negative agnosticism''. * '''[Local:Ism/Altruism altruism]''' – word coined by Auguste Comte, the French founder of positivism, in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the "greater good" of humanity. As the name of the ethical doctrine is "altruism," doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term "altruism" -- serving others through placing their interests above one's own. * '''Local:anarchism''' – various political philosophies and social movements that advocate the elimination of all forms of government, in favor of a society whose members interact on a voluntary basis. These philosophies use ''Local:anarchy'' to mean a society based on voluntary interaction of free individuals, and the idea that communities and individuals have a say in decisions to the degree that they are affected by their outcomes. * '''anarcho-syndicalism''' – a branch of anarchism which focuses on the labor movement, hence the "syndicalism" qualification. Anarcho-syndicalists view labor unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and most forms of private property, which leads to class divisions. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are: Workers’ solidarity, Direct action, Workers' self-management * '''animism''' – "animism" has been applied to many different philosophical systems. It is used to describe Aristotle's view of the relation of soul and body held also by the Stoics and Scholastics. On the other hand monadology (Leibniz) has also been termed animistic. The name is most commonly applied to vitalism, a view mainly associated with Georg Ernst Stahl and revived by Francisque Bouillier (1813-1899), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced back to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a directive force which guides energy without altering its amount. An entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the belief in the world soul, held by Plato, Schelling and others. * '''[Deoxy:evasion.htm anthropocentrism]''' – also called '''Homocentrism''', is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of regarding the existence and/or concerns of human beings as the central fact of the universe. This is similar, but not identical, to the practice of relating all that happens in the universe to the human experience. To clarify, the first position concludes that the fact of human existence is the point of universal existence; the latter merely compares all activity to that of humanity, without making any teleological conclusions. * '''anthropomorphism''' – a form of personification (applying human or animal qualities to inanimate objects) and similar to '''prosopopoeia''' (adopting the persona of another person), is the attribution of human characteristics and qualities to non-human beings, objects, or natural phenomena. Animals, forces of nature, and unseen or unknown authors of chance are frequent subjects of anthropomorphosis. Two examples are the attribution of a human body or of human qualities generally to God (or the gods), and creating imaginary persons who are the embodiment of an abstraction such as Death, Lust, War, or the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. * '''antinomianism''' – in theology is the idea that members of a particular religious group are under no obligation to obey the laws of ethics or morality as presented by religious authorities. Antinomianism is the polar opposite of legalism, the notion that obedience to a code of religious law is necessary for salvation. The term has become a point of contention among opposed religious authorities. Few groups or sects explicitly call themselves "antinomian," but the charge is often levelled by some sects against competing sects. * '''anti-realism''' – any position involving either the denial of the objective reality of entities of a certain type or the insistence that we should be agnostic about their real existence. Thus, we may speak of '''anti-realism''' with respect to other minds, the past, the future, universals, mathematical entities (such as natural numbers), moral categories, the material world, or even thought. * '''Aristotelianism''' – ** '''neo-Aristotelianism''' – * '''asceticism''' – denotes a life which is characterised by refraining from worldly pleasures (austerity). Those who practice ascetic lifestyles often perceive their practices as virtuous and pursue them to achieve greater spirituality. In a more cynical context, ascetic may connote some form of self-mortification, ritual punishment of the body or harsh renunciation of pleasure. However the word certainly does not necessarily imply a negative connotation. * '''ascriptivism''' – * '''associationalism''' – * '''[Deoxy:videx?q=atheism atheism]''' – a condition of being without theistic beliefs; an absence of belief in the existence of gods, thus contrasting with theism. This definition includes both those who assert that there are no gods and those who have no beliefs at all regarding the existence of gods. However, narrower definitions often only qualify the former as atheism, the latter falling under the more general (but rarely used) term nontheism. **'''agnostic atheism''' – the philosophy that encompasses both atheism and agnosticism. Due to definitional variance, an ''agnostic atheist'' does not believe in God or gods and by extension holds true: 'the existence and nonexistence of deities is currently unknown and may be absolutely unknowable', or 'knowledge of the existence and nonexistence of deities is irrelevant or unimportant', or 'abstention from claims of knowledge of the existence and nonexistence of deities is optimal'. ** '''strong atheism''' – the philosophical position that deities do not exist. It is a form of explicit atheism, meaning that it consciously rejects theism. Some strong atheists also claim that the existence of any and all gods is logically impossible. Also called ''positive atheism'', ''hard atheism'' and ''gnostic atheism''. It should be noted that a strong atheist also fits the definition of a weak atheist, but that the reverse is not necessarily true: a strong atheist believes there is a lack or absence of evidence for justifying a belief in God or gods, but a weak atheist does not necessarily deny the possibility of God or god(s) existence. ** '''weak atheism''' – disbelief in the existence of God or gods, without a commitment to the necessary non-existence of God or gods. Also referred to as ''negative atheism'' or ''implicit atheism.'' The weak atheist generally gives a broad definition of atheism as a lack or absence of evidence justifying a belief in God or gods, which defines atheism as a range of positions that entail non-belief, unjustified belief, doubt, or denial of theism. * '''atomism''' – the theory that all the objects in the universe are composed of very small, indestructible elements. (This is the case for the Western [i.e., Greek] theories of atomism. Buddhists also have well-developed theories of atomism, and which involve momentary, or non-eternal, atoms, that flash in and out of existence). ** '''social atomism''' – the point-of-view that individuals rather than social institutions and values are the proper subject of analysis since all properties of institutions and values merely accumulate from the strivings of individuals. ** '''logical atomism''' – Bertrand Russell developed ''logical atomism'' in an attempt to identify the atoms of thought, the pieces of thought that cannot be divided into smaller pieces of thought. * '''authoritarianism''' – The term '''authoritarian''' is used to describe an organization or a state which enforces strong and sometimes oppressive measures against those in its sphere of influence, generally without attempts at gaining their consent and often not allowing feedback on its policies. In an authoritarian state, citizens are subject to state authority in many aspects of their lives, including many that other political philosophies would see as matters of personal choice. There are various degrees of authoritarianism; even very democratic and liberal states will show authoritarianism to some extent, for example in areas of national security. * '''automatism''' – * or '''Surrealist automatism''', to be more specific, is an artistic technique of spontaneous writing, drawing, or the like practiced without conscious aesthetic or moral self-censorship. == * B == * '''[Local:Ism/Bagism bagism]''' – * '''behaviorism''' – (not to be confused with behavioralism of political science) is an approach to psychology based on the proposition that behavior can be researched scientifically without recourse to inner mental states. It is a form of materialism, denying any independent significance for the mind. Its significance for psychological treatment has been profound, making it one of the pillars of pharmacological therapy. * '''Buddhism''' – a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE, gradually spread from India throughout Asia to Central Asia, Sri Lanka, Tibet, Southeast Asia, as well as to East Asian countries such as China, Korea, and Japan. It is classified as an '''Ārya dharma''' or a ''noble religion''. It is one of the shramana religions existing today. == * C == * '''[Deoxy:tcrime.htm#crap capitalism]''' – an economic system in which all or most of the means of production are privately owned and operated (usually through employing wage labour, and for profit), and in which the investment of capital and the production, distribution and prices of commodities and services are determined mainly in a free market. Capitalism has also been called ''laissez-faire economy'', ''free market economy'', ''free enterprise system'', ''economic liberalism'', and ''economic individualism''. ** '''anarcho-capitalism''' – a philosophy based on the idea of individual sovereignty, and a prohibition against initiatory coercion and fraud. It sees the only just basis for law as arising from private property norms and an unlimited right of contract between sovereign individuals. From this basis, anarcho-capitalism rejects the state as an unjustified monopolist and aggressor against sovereign individuals, and embraces anti-statist laissez-faire capitalism. Anarcho-capitalists would aim to protect individual liberty and property by replacing a government monopoly, which is involuntarily funded through taxation, with private, competing businesses. *'''careerism''' – the desire to advance one's own career as a sole aim in life, often at the expense of personal and social growth or development. * '''Cartesianism''' – a philosophy based on the ideas and works of René Descartes. * '''Christianism''' – another name for ''Christianity'', the monotheistic religion recognizing Jesus Christ as its founder and central figure. With more than two billion adherents, or about one-third of the total world population, it is the largest world religion. Its origins are intertwined with Judaism, with which it shares much sacred lore, including the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible). Christianity is sometimes termed an Abrahamic religion, along with Judaism and Islam. * '''classicism''' – in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for classical antiquity, as setting standards for taste which the classicist seeks to emulate. Classicism is usually contrasted with romanticism; the art of classicism typically seeks to be formal, restrained, and Apollonian (nothing in excess) rather than Dionysiac (excess), in Friedrich Nietzsche's opposition. It can also refer to the other periods of classicism. In theater, '''Classicism''' was developed by 17th century French playwrights from what they judged to be the rules of Greek classical theater, including the Classical unities of time, place and action. * '''cognitivism''' – In ethics, cognitivism is the philosophical view that ethical sentences express propositions, and hence are capable of being true or false. See Cognitivism (ethics). More generally, cognitivism with respect to any area of discourse is the position that sentences used in that discourse are cognitive, that is, are meaningful and capable of being true or false. In psychology, cognitivism is the approach to understanding the mind which argues that mental function can be understood as the 'internal' rule bound manipulation of symbols. See Cognitivism (psychology). * '''coherentism''' – There are two distinct types of '''coherentism'''. One refers to the coherence theory of truth, which restricts ''true'' sentences to those that cohere with some specified set of sentences. Someone's belief is true just in the case that it is ''coherent'' with all or most of their other beliefs. Usually, coherence is taken to imply something stronger than mere consistency. Statements that are comprehensive and meet the requirements of Occam's razor are usually to be preferred. The second type coherentism is belief in the coherence theory of justification — an epistemological theory opposing foundationalism and offering a solution to the regress argument. In this epistemological capacity, it is a theory about how belief can be justified. * '''collectivism''' – a theoretical or practical emphasis on the group, as opposed to (and seen by many of its opponents to be at the expense of) the individual. Some psychologists define collectivism as a syndrome of attitudes and behaviors based on the belief that the basic unit of survival lies within a group, not the individual. Collectivists typically hold that that the "greater good" of the group, is more important than the good of any particular individual who is one part of that larger organization. Some collectivists argue that the individual ''incidentally'' serves his own interests by working for the benefit of the group. * '''communalism''' – Outside of South Asia, '''communalism''', describes a broad range of social movements and social theories which are in some way centered upon the community. Communalism can take the form of communal living or communal property, among others. Communalism is sometimes said to put the interests of the community above the interests of the individual, but this is usually only done on the principle that the community exists for the benefit of the individuals who participate in it, so the best way to serve the interests of the individual is through the interests of the community. Many of the communalist ideas today come from Marcus Acquinas, an early communalist philoshopher. * '''communism''' – a theoretical system of social organization and a political movement based on common ownership of the means of production. As a political movement, communism seeks to establish a classless society. A major force in world politics since the early 20th century, modern communism is generally associated with The Communist Manifesto of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, according to which the capitalist profit-based system of private ownership is replaced by a communist society in which the means of production are communally owned, such as through a gift economy. Often this process is said initiated by the revolutionary overthrow of the bourgeoisie (see Marxism), passes through a transitional period marked by the preparatory stage of socialism (see Leninism). Pure communism has never been implemented, it remains theoretical: communism is, in Marxist theory, the end-state, or the result of state-socialism. The word is now mainly understood to refer to the political, economic, and social theory of Marxist thinkers, or life under conditions of Communist party rule. * '''communitarianism''' – a group of related but distinct philosophies that began in the late 20th century, opposing aspects of liberalism and capitalism while advocating phenomena such as civil society. Not necessarily hostile to liberalism in the contemporary American sense of the word, communitarianism rather has a different emphasis, shifting the focus of interest toward communities and societies and away from the individual. The question of priority (individual or community) often has the largest impact in the most pressing ethical questions: health care, abortion, multiculturalism, hate speech, and so on. * '''compatibilism''' – also known as "soft determinism" and championed by Hume, is a theory which holds that free will and determinism are compatible. According to Hume, free will should not be understood as an absolute ability to have chosen differently under exactly the same inner and outer circumstances. Rather, it is a hypothetical ability to have chosen differently if one had been differently psychologically disposed by some different beliefs or desires. Hume also maintains that free acts are not uncaused (or mysteriously self-caused as Kant would have it) but caused by our choices as determined by our beliefs, desires, and by our characters. While a decision making process exists in Hume's determinism, this process is governed by a causal chain of events. * '''Comtism''' – Auguste Comte's positivistic philosophy that metaphysics and theology should be replaced by a hierarchy of sciences from mathematics at the base to sociology at the top. * '''conceptualism''' – a doctrine in philosophy intermediate between nominalism and realism, that universals exist only within the mind and have no external or substantial reality. * '''concretism''' – * '''Confucianism''' – an East Asian ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the early Chinese sage Confucius. It is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought which had tremendous influence on the history of Chinese civilization down to the 21st century. Some have considered it to have been the "state religion" of imperial China. ** '''Neo-Confucianism''' – a form of Confucianism that was primarily developed during the Song dynasty, as a response by the Confucians to the dominance of the Taoists and Buddhists. Neo-Confucians such as Zhu Xi recognized that the Confucian system of the time did not include a thoroughgoing metaphysical system and so devised one. There were many competing views within the Neo-Confucian community, but overall, a system emerged that resembled both Buddhist and Daoist thought of the time and some of the ideas expressed in the [Deoxy:iching Book of Changes (I Ching)] as well as other yin yang theories associated with the Taiji symbol (Taijitu). A well known Neo-Confucian motif is paintings of Confucius, Buddha, and Lao Tzu all drinking out of the same vinegar jar, paintings associated with the slogan "The three teachings are one!" ** '''New Confucianism''' – a new movement of Confucianism since the twentieth century applying Confucianism to modern times. Not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism. * '''consequentialism''' – the belief that what ultimately matters in evaluating actions or policies of action are the consequences that result from choosing one action or policy rather than the alternative. * '''constructivism''' – the view that reality, or at least our knowledge of it, is a value-laden subjective construction rather than a passive acquisition of objective features. * '''consumerism''' – attachment to materialistic values or possessions * '''contextualism''' – a collection of views which emphasize the ''context'' in which an action, utterance or expression occurs, and argues that, in some important respect, the action, utterance or expression can only be understood within that context. Contextualist views hold that philosophically controversial concepts, such as "meaning <var>P</var>," "knowing that <var>P</var>," "having a reason to <var>A</var>," and possibly even "being true" or "being right" only have meaning relative to a specified context. Some philosophers hold that context-dependence may lead to relativism; nevertheless, contextualist views are increasingly popular within philosophy. * '''conventionalism''' – * '''cosmotheism''' – synonym for pantheism (see theism, below). * '''creationism''' – also referred to as '''creation theology''' is the belief that humans, life, the Earth, and the universe were created by a supreme being or deity's supernatural intervention. The intervention may be seen either as an ''act of creation'' from nothing (''ex nihilo'') or the emergence of order from pre-existing chaos. ** '''Day-age creationism''' – ** '''Evolutionary creationism''' – ** '''Gap creationism''' – ** '''Old Earth creationism''' – ** '''Young Earth creationism''' – * '''cynicism''' – was originally the philosophy of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics (''main article''), founded by Antisthenes. Nowadays the word generally describes the opinions of those inclined to disbelieve in human sincerity, in virtue, or in altruism: individuals who maintain that only self-interest motivates human behavior. A modern cynic typically has a highly contemptuous attitude towards social norms, especially those which serve more of a ritualistic purpose than a practical one, and will tend to dismiss a substantial proportion of popular beliefs, conventional morality and accepted wisdom as irrelevant or obsolete nonsense. == * D == * '''Darwinism''' – a scientific doctrine first presented by Charles Darwin in his 1859 book The Origin of Species. It states that the variety of life found on Earth is due to the process of Evolution driven by the mechanism of Natural Selection. It is to be contrasted with Creationism and Intelligent Design. There is a lively debate as to whether or not Darwinism is compatible with any, all or some religions. * '''deconstructionism''' – * '''defeatism''' – * '''deism''' – the view that reason, rather than revelation or tradition, should be the basis of belief in God. Deists reject both organized and revealed religion and maintain that reason is the essential element in all knowledge. For a "rational basis for religion" they refer to the cosmological argument (first cause argument), the teleological argument (argument from design), and other aspects of what was called ''natural religion''. Deism has become identified with the classical belief that God created but does not intervene in the world, though this is not a necessary component of deism. * '''deontologism''' – ethical theory considered solely on duty and rights, where one has an unchanging moral obligation to abide by a set of defined principles. Thus, the ends of any action never justify the means in this ethical system. If someone were to do their moral duty, then it would not matter if it had negative consequences. Therefore, consequentialism is the philosophical antithesis of this theory. * '''descriptivism''' – * '''determinism''' – ** '''historical determinism''' – *'''Dialetheism''' – a metaphysical doctrine according to which there are true contradictions. * '''dogmatism''' – * '''dualism''' – a set of beliefs which begins with the claim that the mental and the physical have a fundamentally different nature. It is contrasted with varying kinds of monism, including materialism and phenomenalism. Dualism is one answer to the mind-body problem. Pluralism holds that there are even more kinds of events or things in the world. ** '''substance dualism''' – is a type of ontological dualism defended by Descartes in which it is claimed that there are two fundamental kinds of substance: mental and material. The mental does not extend in space, and material cannot think. It holds that immortal souls occupy an independent realm of existence, while apparently bodies die. This view contradicts physicalism. * '''dynamism''' – == * E == * '''eclecticism''' – * '''[Local:Ism/Egalitarianism egalitarianism]''' – * '''[Deoxy:egofalse.htm egoism]''' – * '''emanationism''' – * '''emotionalism''' – * '''emotivism''' – * '''empiricism''' – the philosophical doctrine that all human knowledge ultimately comes from the senses and from experience. Empiricism denies that humans have innate ideas or that anything is knowable a priori, i.e., without reference to experience. Empiricism is contrasted with rationalism, epitomized by René Descartes. According to the rationalist, philosophy should be performed via introspection and a priori deductive reasoning. * '''environmentalism''' – * '''Epicureanism''' – while often considered to be the philosophy of pleasure seeking, in fact refers to a middle-path philosophy defining happiness as success in avoiding pain, in the form of both mental worry and physical discomfort, in order to produce a state of tranquility. * '''epiphenomenalism''' – the view in philosophy of mind according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no effects of any kind. In other words, the causal relations go only one way, from physical to mental. In recent times it is usually considered a type of dualism, because it postulates physical events but also non-physical mental events; but historically is has sometimes been thought a kind of monism, because of its sharp divergence from substance dualism. * '''equalitarianism''' – * '''essentialism''' – the belief and practice centered on a philosophical claim that for any specific kind of entity it is at least theoretically possible to specify a finite list of characteristics, all of which any entity must have to belong to the group defined. * '''eternalism''' – * '''ethical egoism''' – * '''ethnocentrism''' – * '''eudaimonism''' – A system of ethics that evaluates actions in terms of their capacity to produce happiness. * '''existentialism''' – the philosophical movement that views human existence as having a set of underlying themes and characteristics, such as anxiety, dread, freedom, awareness of death, and consciousness of existing, that are primary. That is, they cannot be reduced to or explained by a natural-scientific approach or any approach that attempts to detach itself from or rise above these themes. ** '''Christian existentialism''' – the philosophical movement shares similar views to existentialism with the added idea that the Judeo-Christian God plays an important part in coping with the underlying themes of human existence. * '''experientialism''' – * '''experimentalism''' – * '''expressionism''' – an aesthetic and artistic movement that distorted reality for enhanced or overexaggerated emotional effect. It can also apply to some literature; the works of Franz Kafka and Georg Kaiser are often said to be expressionitic, for example. * '''externalism''' – * '''externism''' – pseudo-philosophical theory, developed by fictitious genius Jára Cimrman. It deals with our knowledge and learning process. * '''extropianism''' – == * F == * '''fallibilism''' – doctrine that absolute certainty about knowledge is impossible; or at least that all claims to knowledge could, in principle, be mistaken. As a formal doctrine, it is most strongly associated with Charles Sanders Peirce, who used it in his attack on foundationalism. Unlike scepticism, fallibilism does not imply the need to abandon our knowledge- we needn't have logically conclusive justifications for what we know. Rather, it is an admission that because empirical knowledge can be revised by further observation, all knowledge, excepting that which is axiomatically true (such as mathematical and logical knowledge) exists in a constant state of flux. * '''falsificationism''' – the idea that a proposition or theory cannot be scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Falsifiable does not mean false. For a proposition to be falsifiable, it must be at least in principle possible to make an observation that would show the proposition to be false, even if that observation had not been made. For example, the proposition "All crows are black" would be falsified by observing one white crow. * '''fascism''' – * '''feminism''' – a diverse collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation. As a social movement, feminism largely focuses on limiting or eradicating gender inequality and promoting women's rights, interests, and issues in society. * '''fatalism''' – the view that human deliberation and actions are pointless and ineffectual in determining events, because whatever will be will be. One ancient argument, called the ''idle argument'', went like this: "If it is fated for you to recover from your illness, then you will recover whether you call a doctor or not. Likewise, if you are fated not to recover, you will not do so even if you call a doctor. So, calling a doctor makes no difference." Arguments like this are usually rejected even by causal determinists, who may say that it may be determined that only a doctor can cure you. * '''fideism''' – In Christian theology, the position that reason is more-or-less irrelevant to religious belief, that rational or scientific arguments for the existence of God are fallacious and irrelevant, and have nothing to do with the truth of Christian theology. Its argument in essence goes: "Christian theology teaches that people are saved by faith. But, if God's existence can be ''proven'', either empirically or logically, faith becomes irrelevant. Therefore, if Christian theology is true, no proof of God's existence is possible." The term is occasionally used to refer to a belief that Christians are saved by faith alone: for which see ''sola fide''. This position is sometimes called ''solifidianism''. * '''finalism''' – * '''formalism''' – means a number of different things: ** A certain school in the philosophy of mathematics, stressing axiomatic proofs through theorems specifically associated with David Hilbert. ** A school of thought in law and jurisprudence which emphasises the fairness of process over substantive outcomes. See Legal formalism. ** In economic anthropology, '''formalism''' is the theoretical perspective that the principles of neoclassical economics can be applied to our understanding of all human societies. ** A certain rigorous mathematical method: see formal system. ** A set of notations and rules for manipulating them which yield results in agreement with experiment or other techniques of calculation. These rules and notations may or may not have a corresponding mathematical semantics. In the case no mathematical semantics exists, the calculations are often said to be ''purely formal''. See for example scientific formalism. ** In the study of the arts and literature, '''formalism''' refers to the style of criticism that focuses on artistic or literary techniques in themselves, in separation from the work's social and historical context. See formalism (art), formalism (literature). **In the study of film and film theory, '''formalism''' is used to refer to a style of criticism that focuses on the technical aspects of filmmaking (e.g., lighting, sets, costumes, etc.). It was also used to describe an avant-garde experimental film movement, often seen as odd or extremist, which was concerned with the beauty of the actual physical form of film (i.e., the celluloid itself). ''Main article: Formalist film theory. See also auteur theory.'' * '''formulism''' – meaning adherence to or reliance on formulas, is also a school of philosophy that states that good, evil and chosing the correct actions can all be determined from a simple formula. * '''foundationalism''' – any justification or knowledge theory in epistemology that holds that beliefs are justified (known) when they are based on ''basic beliefs'' (also called ''foundational beliefs''). Basic beliefs are beliefs that are self-justifying or self-evident, and don't need to be justified ''by other beliefs.'' Basic beliefs provide justificatory support to other beliefs, which can in turn support further derivative beliefs. Foundationalists hold that basic beliefs are justified by mental events or states (such as experiences) that do not constitute beliefs (these are called nondoxastic mental states), or that they simply are not the type of thing that can (or needs to be) justified. * '''Freudianism''' – * '''functionalism''' – the dominant theory of mental states in modern philosophy. Functionalism was developed as an answer to the mind-body problem because of objections to both identity theory and logical behaviourism. Its core idea is that the mental states can be accounted for without taking into account the underlying physical medium (the neurons), instead attending to higher-level functions such as beliefs, desires, and emotions. == * G == * '''gnosticism''' – various mystical initiatory religions, sects and knowledge schools, which were most prominent in the first few centuries CE. It is also applied to modern revivals of these groups and, sometimes, by analogy to all religious movements based on secret knowledge gnosis, thus can lead to confusion. == * H == * '''hedonism''' –a philosophy which promotes the pursuit of carnal and humanly pleasures and delights. Eg. Sex. * '''Hegelianism''' – a philosophy developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel which can be summed up by a favorite motto by Hegel "The rational alone is real". Which means that all reality is capable of being expressed in rational categories. His goal was to reduce to a more synthetic unity the system of transcendental idealism. * '''henotheism''' – see theism, below. * '''historicism''' – * '''holism''' – * '''humanism''' – ** '''posthumanism''' – ** '''secular humanism''' – a system of belief that upholds ethics and reason as the sole means of gaining knowledge. Secular humanists reject blind faith and dogma in favor of scientific inquiry, and most agree that science and rationality can be supplemented with help from the arts. Also known as '''scientific humanism'''. ** '''transhumanism''' – (sometimes abbreviated >H or H+) is an emergent philosophy analysing or favouring the use of science and technology, especially neurotechnology, biotechnology, and nanotechnology, to overcome human limitations and improve the human condition. Dr. Robin Hanson describes it as "the idea that new technologies are likely to change the world so much in the next century or two that our descendants will in many ways no longer be 'human'." *** '''democratic transhumanism''' – ** '''religious humanism''' – *** '''Christian humanism''' – **** '''Christian existential humanism''' – * '''hylozoism''' – == * I == * '''idealism''' – an approach to philosophical enquiry. ''The ideal'', in these systems, relates to direct knowledge of subjective mental ideas, or images. It is usually juxtaposed with ''realism'' in which the real is said to have absolute existence prior to and independent of our knowledge. ** '''objective idealism''' – ** '''German idealism''' – ** '''subjective idealism''' – ** '''transcendental idealism''' – the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and later Kantian and German Idealist philosophers; a view according to which our experience is not about the things as they are in themselves, but about the things as they appear to us. It differs from standard (empirical) idealism in that it does not claim that the objects of our experiences would be in any sense ''within'' our mind. The idea is that whenever we experience something, we experience it as it is ''for ourselves'': the object is real as well as mind-independent, but is in a sense ''corrupted'' by our cognition (by the categories and the forms of sensibility, space and time). Transcendental idealism denies that we could have knowledge of the thing in itself. A view that holds the opposite is called transcendental realism. * '''ignosticism''' – * '''illusionism''' – * '''immaterialism''' – * '''[Local:Ism/Immediatism immediatism]''' – * '''immoralism''' – * '''immortalism''' – another name for immortality (or eternal life), is the concept of existing for a potentially infinite, or indeterminate length, of time. Throughout history, humans have had the desire to live forever. What form an unending or indefinitely-long human life would take, or whether it is even possible, has been the subject of much speculation, fantasy, and debate. * '''imperativism''' – * '''incompatibilism''' – * '''indeterminism''' – * '''individualism''' – * '''inductionism''' – * '''innatism''' – * '''inductivism''' – * '''instrumentalism''' – * '''intellectualism''' – doctrine about the possibility of deriving knowledge from reason alone, ''intellectualism'' can stand for a general approach emphasising the importance of learning and logical thinking. Criticism of this attitude, sometimes summed up as ''Left Bank'', caricatures intellectualism's faith in the mind and puts it in opposition to emotion, instinct, and primitivist values in general. * '''internalism''' – * '''intentionalism''' – * '''interactionism''' – * '''interpretivism''' – * '''intrinsicism''' – * '''intuitionism''' – * '''irrationalism''' – * '''irrealism''' – * '''Islamism''' – a set of political ideologies derived from various religious views of Muslim fundamentalists, which hold that Islam is not only a religion, but also a political system that governs the legal, economic and social imperatives of the state. Islamist movements seek to re-shape the state by implementing a conservative formulation of Sharia. Islamists regard themselves as Muslims rather than Islamists, while moderate Muslims reject this notion. == * J == * '''Jainism''' – * '''Judaism''' – == * K == * '''Kantianism''' – * '''kathenotheism''' – an extension of "henotheism", from ''kath heno theon'' – "one god at a time". == * L == * '''legalism''' – * '''liberalism''' – * '''libertarianism''' – * '''logical positivism''' – a philosophy (of science), that originated in the Vienna Circle in the 1920s, which holds that philosophy should aspire to the same sort of rigor as science. Philosophy should provide strict criteria for judging sentences true, false and meaningless. Although the logical positivists held a wide range of beliefs on many matters, they all shared an interest in science and deep skepticism of the theological and metaphysical. Following Wittgenstein, many subscribed to the correspondence theory of truth, although some, like Neurath, believed in coherentism. They believed that all knowledge should be based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. Hence many supported forms of realism, materialism, philosophical naturalism, and empiricism. Logical positivism is also referred to as ''logical empiricism'', ''rational empiricism'', and ''neo-positivism''. * '''logicism''' – == * M == * '''Manichaeism''' – was one of the major ancient religions. Though its organized form is mostly extinct today, a revival has been attempted under the name of '''Neo-Manichaeism'''. However, most of the writings of the founding prophet Mani have been lost. Some scholars and anti-Catholic polemicists argue that its influence subtly continues in Western Christian thought via Saint Augustine of Hippo, who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism and whose writing continues to be enormously influential among Catholic and Protestant theologians. * '''Marxism''' – * '''neo-Marxism''' – * '''materialism''' – the philosophical view that the only thing that can truly be said to 'exist' is matter; that fundamentally, all things are composed of 'material' and all phenomena are the result of material interactions. ** '''Christian materialism''' – ** '''dialectical materialism''' – ** '''historical materialism''' – ** '''eliminative materialism''' – absolute version of materialism and physicalism with respect to mental entities and mental vocabulary, according to which our common-sense understanding of the mind (what eliminativists call folk psychology) is not a viable theory on which to base scientific investigation: behaviour and experience can only be adequately explained on the biological level. Therefore, no coherent neural basis will be found for everyday folk psychological concepts (such as belief , desire and intention, for they are illusory and therefore do not have any consistent neurological substrate. Eliminative materialists therefore believe that consciousness does not exist except as an epiphenomenon of brain function and some believe that the concept will eventually be eliminated as neuroscience progresses. ** '''emergent materialism''' – ** '''evolutionary materialism''' – ** '''French materialism''' – ** '''reductive materialism''' – Reductionism * '''mechanism''' – theory that all natural phenomena can be explained by physical causes. It can be contrasted with vitalism, the philosophical theory that vital forces are active in living organisms, so that life cannot be explained solely by mechanism. * '''mentalism''' – * '''meliorism''' – * '''mentalism''' – * '''modernism''' – * '''Mohism''' – the teachings of Mozi * '''monism''' – the metaphysical and theological view that there is only one principle, essence, substance or energy. Monism is to be distinguished from dualism, which holds that ultimately there are two principles, and from pluralism, which holds that ultimately there are many principles. * '''monistic theism''' – see theism, below. * '''monolatrism''' – * '''monotheism''' – see theism, below. * '''moral absolutism''' –The belief in a single set of ‘rights’ and ‘wrongs’, with no variation. These are known by all people and to not respect them is a choice. * '''moral realism''' – * '''moral relativism''' – * '''moral universalism''' – * '''mysticism''' – == * N == * '''nativism''' – * '''naturalism''' – ** '''humanistic naturalism''' – * '''necessitarianism''' – * '''nihilism''' – philosophical view that the world, and especially human existence, is without meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. It is more often a charge leveled against a particular idea than a position to which someone is overtly subscribed. Movements such as Dada, Deconstructionism, and punk have been described by various observers as "nihilist". * '''nominalism''' – the belief that universals or mental concepts have no objective reaity but exist only as words or "names" (Latin ''nomina''). * '''non-cognitivism''' – * '''nontheism''' – the absence of belief in both the existence ''and'' non-existence of a deity (or deities, or other numinous phenomena). The word is often employed as a blanket term for all belief systems that are not theistic, including atheism (both strong and weak) and agnosticism, as well as certain Eastern religions like Confucianism, Taoism, and Zen Buddhism. == * O == * '''objectivism''' – ** '''neo-objectivism''' – * '''occasionalism''' – * '''ontologism''' – * '''operationalism''' – * '''optimism''' – * '''organicism''' – == * P == * '''pacifism''' – * '''pandeism''' – see deism, above and pantheism (under theism) below. * '''panendeism''' – * '''panentheism''' – see theism, below. * '''panpsychism''' – * '''pantheism''' – see theism, below. * '''particularism''' – * '''perfectionism''' – * '''personalism''' – * '''perspectivism''' – * '''pessimism''' – * '''Phenomenal conservatism''' – * '''phenomenalism''' – * '''physicalism''' – * '''Platonism''' – ** '''neo-Platonism''' – was a school of philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century A.D. Though based on the teachings of Plato and Platonists, it interpreted Plato in many new ways, so that Neoplatonism was quite different from what Plato had written, though many Neoplatonists would prefer to say that what they advocated had been previously taught by Plato. * '''Pluralism''' – in the area of philosophy of the mind, distinguishes a position where one believes there to be ultimately many kinds of substances in the world, as opposed to monism and dualism. (See also cosmotheism). * '''polylogism''' – * '''polytheism''' – see theism, below. * '''positivism''' – philosophical position that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge. It is an approach to the philosophy of science, deriving from Enlightenment thinkers like Pierre-Simon Laplace (and many others). See also logical positivism. * '''postmodernism''' – philosophical movement characterized by the postmodern criticism and analysis of Western philosophy. Beginning as a critique of Continental philosophy, it was heavily influenced by phenomenology, structuralism and existentialism, and by the philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche and Martin Heidegger. It was also influenced to some degree by Ludwig Wittgenstein's later criticisms of analytic philosophy. Within postmodern philosophy, there are numerous interrelated fields, including deconstruction and several fields beginning with the prefix "post-", such as post-structuralism, post-Marxism, and post-feminism. In particular postmodern philosophy has spawned a huge literature of critical theory. * '''pragmatism''' – philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of meaning and truth. Pragmatism objects to the view that human concepts and intellect represent reality, and therefore stands in opposition to both formalist and rationalist schools of philosophy. Rather, pragmatism holds that it is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that theories acquire significance, and only with a theory's success in this struggle that it ''becomes'' true. * '''prescriptivism''' – * '''probabilism''' – practical doctrine which gives assistance in ordinary matters to one who is skeptical in respect of the possibility of real knowledge: it supposes that though knowledge is impossible, a man may rely on strong beliefs in practical affairs. This view was held by the skeptics of the New Academy (''see skepticism and Carneades.''). Opposed to "probabilism" is "probabiliorism" (Latin ''probabilior'', "more likely"), which holds that when there is a preponderance of evidence on one side of a controversy that side is presumably right. Academic skeptics accept probabilism, while Pyrrhonian skeptics do not. * '''psychological egoism''' – * '''psychologism''' – * '''Pyrrhonism''' – * '''Pythagoreanism''' – the esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers the Pythagoreans, much influenced by mathematics and probably a main inspiration source to Plato and platonism. Pythagoreanism includes musica universalis, the ''music of the spheres''. == * R == * '''Randianism''' – objectivism. * '''rationalism''' – an approach to philosophy based on the thesis that human reason can in principle be the source of all knowledge. In the modern period, rationalism was initially championed by René Descartes and spread during the 17th and 18th centuries, primarily in continental Europe. In contrast, the modern approach known as British Empiricism held that all ideas come to us through experience, and thus that knowledge (with the possible exception of mathematics) is essentially empirical. At issue is the fundamental source of human knowledge, and the proper techniques for verifying what we think we know (see Epistemology). ** '''critical rationalism''' – *** '''pancritical rationalism''' – * '''rationalist movement''' – a contemporary philosophical doctrine that asserts that the truth can best be discovered by reason and factual analysis, rather than faith, dogma or religious teaching. Rationalism has some similarities in ideology and intent to humanism and atheism, in that it aims to provide a framework for social and philosophical discourse outside of religious or supernatural beliefs. * '''realism''' – the belief that properties, usually called Universals, exist independently of the things that manifest them. Thus a realist would hold that even if one were to destroy all of the manifestations of the color red the universal red would still exist. ** '''moral realism''' – ** '''Platonic realism''' – * '''reconstructivism''' – * '''reductionism''' – a number of related, contentious theories that hold, very roughly, that the nature of complex things can always be reduced to (be explained by) simpler or more fundamental things. This is said of objects, phenomena, explanations, theories, and meanings. In short, it is philosophical materialism taken to its logical consequences. ** '''ontological reductionism''' – the idea that everything that exists is made from a small number of basic substances that behave in regular ways. Compare to monism. ** '''Methodological reductionism''' – the idea that explanations of things, such as scientific explanations, ought to be continually reduced to the very simplest entities possible (but no simpler). Occam's Razor forms the basis of this type of reductionism. ** '''theoretical reductionism''' – the idea that older theories or explanations are not generally replaced outright by new ones, but that new theories are refinements or reductions of the old theory in greater detail. ** '''scientific reductionism''' – has been used to describe all of the above ideas as they relate to science, but is most often used to describe the idea that all phenomena can be reduced to scientific explanations. ** '''linguistic reductionism''' – the idea that everything can be described in a language with a limited number of core concepts, and combinations of those concepts. (See Basic English and the constructed language Toki Pona). ** '''greedy reductionism''' – this term was coined by Daniel Dennett to condemn those forms of reductionism that try to explain too much with too little. ** '''analytical reductionism''' – as used in [http://www.dialogweb.org/Contribute/Reductionism%20UPI2203.htm "Is Reductionism A Good Approach In Science?"] "is the underlying a priori of ontological reductionism". ** '''relationalism''' – * '''relativism''' – the view that the meaning and value of human beliefs and behaviors have no absolute reference. Relativists claim that humans understand and evaluate beliefs and behaviors only in terms of, for example, their historical and cultural context. Philosophers identify many different ''kinds'' of relativism depending upon what allegedly depends on something and what something depends on. ** '''moral relativism''' – the belief that there is no one universal set of morals; i.e., that each individual has his or her own moral beliefs, usually based on personal experience or perception, and that those morals are valid and true for those individuals. ** '''linguistic relativism''' – ** '''methodological relativism''' – * '''reliabilism''' – * '''representationalism''' – * '''romanticism''' – == * S == * '''scholasticism''' – school of philosophy taught by the academics (or '''schoolmen''') of medieval universities circa 1100 - 1500. Scholasticism attempted to reconcile the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology. The primary purpose of scholasticism was to find the answer to a question or resolve a contradiction. It is most well known in its application in medieval theology but was applied to classical philosophy and other fields of study. It is not a philosophy or theology on its own, but a tool and method for learning which puts emphasis on dialectical reasoning. * '''scientism''' – * '''Scotism''' – * '''secularism''' – * '''[Deoxy:shaman.htm Shamanism]''' – Use of the archaic techniques of ecstasy that were developed independent of any religious philosophy—the empirically validated, experientially operable techniques that produce ecstasy. Ecstasy is the contemplation of wholeness.--~~[Deoxy:mckenna.htm Terence McKenna], ''The Archaic Revival''~~ * '''Sikkhism''' – * '''sensualism''' – * '''[Meme:RadicalEvolution singularitarianism]''' – a moral philosophy based upon the belief that a technological singularity - the technological creation of smarter-than-human intelligence - is possible, advocating deliberate action to effect and ensure its safety. While some futurologists and transhumanists speculate on the possibility and nature of this supposed singularity (often referred to as ''the Singularity''), a Singularitarian believes it is not only possible, but that it can also be guided, and acts in ways that he/she believes will contribute to its safety and early arrival. * '''situationalism''' – * '''skepticism''' – ** '''Pyrrhonian skepticism''' – * '''Social Darwinism''' – * '''socialism''' – ideology with the core belief that a society should exist in which popular collectives control the means of power, and therefore the means of production. Though the de facto meaning of socialism has changed over time, it remains strongly-related to the establishment of an organized working class; created through either revolution or by social evolution, with the purpose of building a classless society. Socialism had its origins in the ideals of The Enlightenment, during the Industrial Age/Age of Industrialization, amid yearnings for a more egalitarian society. It has also increasingly become concentrated on social reforms within modern democracies. * '''Solipsism''' – * '''Sophism''' – * '''spiritualism''' – a religious movement, prominent from the 1840s to the 1920s, found primarily in English-speaking countries. The movement's distinguishing feature is the belief that the spirits of the dead can be contacted by adepts. These spirits are believed to lie on a higher spiritual plane than humans, and are therefore capable of providing guidance in both worldly and spiritual matters. * '''statism''' – * '''Stoicism''' – * '''structuralism''' – ** '''post-structuralism''' – * '''subjectivism''' – * '''substance monotheism''' – see theism, below * '''substantialism''' – * '''surrealism''' – * '''symbolism''' – * '''syncretism''' – the attempt to reconcile disparate, even opposing, beliefs and to meld practices of various schools of thought. It is especially associated with the attempt to merge and analogize several originally ''discrete'' traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, and thus assert an underlying unity. == * T == * '''[Deoxy:tao.htm Taoism]''' – a religion and philosophy. As a religion, Taoism is not belief-centered, and there are no known Taoist creeds. At the same time, certain characteristic beliefs or assumptions can be identified. One of these is the existence of several classes of supernatural beings, who may enter into relations with human beings. These include gods, ghosts, and ancestral spirits. Another fundamental assumption is the efficacy of ritual in maintaining a positive relationship with these beings. Philosophical Taoism emphasizes various themes found in the ''Daodejing'' and ''Zhuangzi'' such as "nonaction" (''wu wei''), emptiness, detachment, receptiveness, spontaneity, the strength of softness, the relativism of human values, and the search for a long life. * '''teleologism''' – the supposition that there is design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in the works and processes of nature, and the philosophical study of that purpose. Teleology stands in contrast to philosophical naturalism, and both ask questions separate from the questions of science. While science investigates natural laws and phenomena, Philosophical naturalism and teleology investigate the existence or non-existence of an organizing principle behind those natural laws and phenonema. Philosophical naturalism asserts that there are no such principles. Teleology asserts that there are. * '''theism''' – the belief in one or more gods or goddesses. More specifically, it may also mean the belief in God, a god, or gods, who is/are actively involved in maintaining the Universe. A theist can also take the position that he does not have sufficient evidence to "know" whether God or gods exist, although he believes it through faith. ** '''[Deoxy:bom.htm monotheism]''' – the belief in a single, universal, all-encompassing deity. Zoroastrianism and the Abrahamic religions are considered Monotheist. *** '''deism''' – a form of monotheism in which it is believed that one god exists. However, a deist rejects the idea that this god intervenes in the world. Hence any notion of special revelation is impossible, and the nature of god can only be known through reason and observation from nature. A deist thus rejects the miraculous, and the claim to knowledge made for religious groups and texts. *** '''cosmotheism''' – synonym for pantheism (see below). *** '''monistic theism''' – the type of monotheism found in Hinduism. This type of theism is different from the Semitic religions as it encompasses panentheism, monism, and at the same time includes the concept of a personal God as an universal, omnipotent supreme being. The other types of monotheism are qualified monism, the school of Ramanuja or Vishishtadvaita, which admits that the universe is part of God, or Narayana, a type of panentheism, but there is a plurality of souls within this supreme Being and Dvaita, which differs in that it is dualistic, as God is separate and not panentheistic. *** '''pantheism''' – the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. More detailed definitions tend to emphasize the idea that natural law, existence and/or the universe (the sum total of all that is was and shall be) is represented or personified in the theological principle of 'God'. The existence of a transcendent supreme extraneous to nature is denied. Depending on how this is understood, such a view may be presented as tantamount to atheism, deism or theism. ***'''panentheism''' a form of theism that holds that god contains, but is not identical to, the Universe. The universe is part of god. This is also the view of Process theology and also Hinduism. According to Hinduism, the universe is part of God but God is not equal to the universe but in fact transcends it as well. However, unlike Process theology, God in Hinduism is omnipotent. ***'''substance monotheism''' – found e.g. in some indigenous African religions, holds that the many gods are different forms of a single underlying substance, and that this underlying substance is God. This view has some similarities to the Christian trinitarian view of three persons sharing one nature. ***'''transtheism''' – assumes the existence of God as an absent Deity and the ultimate concept of God’s existence is transcendent and external to all other forms of existence, which implies an impersonal, non-anthropomorphic, non-universemorphic or even non-cosmosmorphic being and view of God. In transtheism, God has one primary attribute, transcendence. ** '''polytheism''' – belief in, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. Most ancient religions were polytheistic, holding to pantheons of traditional deities, often accumulated over centuries of cultural interchange and experience. The belief in many gods does not contradict or preclude also believing in an all-powerful all-knowing supreme being. *** '''henotheism''' – devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of other gods. Coined by Max Müller, according to whom it is "monotheism in principle and a polytheism in fact". Variations on the term have been '''inclusive monotheism''' and '''monarchial polytheism''', designed to differentiate differing forms of the phenomenon. ** '''classical theism''' – ** '''open theism''' – ** '''philosophical theism''' – * '''theological noncognitivism''' – the argument that religious language, and specifically words like "God" (capitalized), are not cognitively meaningful. It is cited as proof of the nonexistence of anything named "God", and therefore is a basis for atheism. There are two main arguments: Kai Nielsen used verifiability theory of meaning to conclude that religious language is meaningless because it is not verifiable, proving weak atheism. George H. Smith used an attribute-based approach to argue that the concept "god" has no meaningful attributes, only negatively defined or relational attributes, making it meaningless — leading to the conclusion that "god does not exist", thus proving strong atheism. * '''Thomism''' – the philosophical school that followed in the legacy of Thomas Aquinas. The word comes from the name of its originator, whose summary work ''Summa Theologiae'' has arguably been second to only the Bible in importance to the Catholic Church. * '''totalitarianism''' – a typology employed by political scientists to describe modern regimes in which the state regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior. Totalitarian regimes mobilize entire populations in support of the state and a political ideology, and do not tolerate activities by individuals or groups such as labor unions, churches and political parties that are not directed toward the state's goals. They maintain themselves in power by means of secret police, propaganda disseminated through the state-controlled mass media, regulation and restriction of free discussion and criticism, and widespread use of terror tactics. * '''transcendental idealism''' – the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and later Kantian and German Idealist philosophers; a view according to which our experience is not about the things as they are in themselves, but about the things as they appear to us. It differs from standard (empirical) idealism in that it does not claim that the objects of our experiences would be in any sense ''within'' our mind. The idea is that whenever we experience something, we experience it as it is ''for ourselves'': the object is real as well as mind-independent, but is in a sense ''corrupted'' by our cognition (by the categories and the forms of sensibility, space and time). Transcendental idealism denies that we could have knowledge of the thing in itself. A view that holds the opposite is called transcendental realism. * '''transcendentalism''' – a group of new ideas in literature, religion, culture, and philosophy that advocates that there is an ideal spiritual state that 'transcends' the physical and empirical and is only realized through a knowledgeable intuitive awareness that is conditional upon the individual. The concept emerged in New England in the early-to mid-nineteenth century. It is sometimes called "''American'' ''Transcendentalism''" to distinguish it from other uses of the word ''transcendental''. It began as a protest against the general state of culture and society at the time, and in particular, the state of intellectualism at Harvard and the doctrine of the Unitarian church which was taught at Harvard Divinity School. The term ''transcendentalism'' sometimes serves as shorthand for "transcendental idealism". Another alternative meaning for ''transcendentalism'' is the classical philosophy that God transcends the manifest world. As John Scotus Erigena put it to Frankish king Charles the Bald in the year 840 A.D., "We do not know what God is. God himself doesn't know what He is because He is not anything. Literally God is not, because He transcends being." * '''transtheism''' – see theism, above. == * U == * '''universalism''' – synonym for moral universalism, as a compromise between moral relativism and moral absolutism. * '''utilitarianism''' – theory of ethics based on quantitative maximization of total welfare for a population (usually all humans, though other formulations have been proposed, including all sentient life). It is a form of consequentialism. Welfare is generally described hedonistically. Utilitarianism is sometimes incorrectly summarized as "The greatest happiness for the greatest number." As the distribution of happiness is irrelevant to utilitarian calculations, the greatest number component of this common phrase is misleading. An accurate summary would be, "One ought act so that the consequences of one's act will produce the greatest possible total welfare across all members of the population." * '''utopianism''' – the many various social and political movements, and a significant body of religious and secular literature, based upon the idea of paradise on earth. See [Deoxy:find/utopia Utopia]. == * V == * '''value pluralism''' – the idea that two or more moral values may be equally ultimate (true), yet in conflict. In addition, it postulates that in many cases, such incompatible values, may be rationally incommensurable. As such, value-pluralism is a theory in metaethics, rather than an ethical theory or a set of values in itself. The Oxford historian of ideas, Isaiah Berlin, is accredited with having done the first substantial work on value-pluralism, bringing it to the attention of general academia. * '''verificationism''' – an epistemic theory of truth based on the idea that the mind engages in a certain kind of activity: "verifying" a proposition. The distinctive claim of verificationism is that the result of such verifications is, by definition, truth. That is, truth is reducible to this process of verification. * '''vitalism''' – the doctrine that '''"vital forces"''' are active in living organisms, so that life cannot be explained solely by mechanism. That element is often referred to as the "vital spark" or "energy" which some equate with the "soul". * '''voluntarism''' – * '''voluntaryism''' – == * Z == * '''Zen Buddhism''' – see [[ZenKoan]] * '''Zoroastrianism''' – ,, ,, == See also == *Wikipedia:Lists_of_philosophy_topics